Anglo-Saxon Deviant Burials
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Anglo-Saxon England Execution Cemetery Case-Study: Walkington Wold
The Evidence:
Execution Cemetery Characteristics Present at Walkington Wold
(Buckberry and Hadley 2007; Reynolds 2009)
• Evidence of decapitation
• Varied burial alignment
• Shallow graves
• Multiple burial
• Age and sex profile of skeletons
• Location in prominent elevated position
• Association with prehistoric monument
• Location near boundary between two local Anglo-Saxon administrative units (the hundreds of Welton and Cave).
Background
The site of Walkington Wold consists of two Bronze Age barrows located in East Yorkshire, England which were excavated between 1967 and 1969 by J.E. Barlett and R.W. Mackey (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:309). Bartlett and Mackey discovered 12 burials cut into the southern part of barrow 1 (Barlett and Mackey 1973:25, as seen in Buckberry and Hadley 2007:309). The Skeletal remains found consist of two complete burials, 10 burials without crania (pl. of cranium), and 11 disarticulated crania (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:309). For a full breakdown of the skeletal remains found see Table 1. The site has been variously interpreted as a sub-Roman massacre at a signal station, a temple site associate with a 'Celtic' head cult, and recently an Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery (Buckberry and Hadley 2007). For more on site interpretations follow link.
Decapitation
Walkington Wold has a high prevalence of decapitations even for execution cemeteries. Hanging and decapitation are the principle modes of execution during this period (Reynolds 2009:247). For more information on capital punishment in Anglo-Saxon England see link.
Evidence for decapitation at the site is as follows (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:314; Reynolds 2009:39-44, 159-169):
• 10 of the skeletons are missing their skulls and 11 disarticulated crania were found.
• 4 of the disarticulated crania had their mandibles (jaws) and/or several cervical (neck) vertebrae still articulated, indicating perimortem decapitation (they were decapitated around the time of death and buried with the soft tissue still intact) (Mays 2010: 249).
• The other 7 crania were missing their mandibles’ which indicates they were buried in this location after the soft-tissue had decayed. The absence of mandibles may be indicative of the heads being displayed on stakes prior to burial; a practice that appears in Anglo-Saxon written sources with regards to the treatment of criminals (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:314).
Evidence of Trauma Consistent with Decapitation
Image 1: Posterior of Skull 5 showing blade injury possibly Image 2: First thoracic vertebra from Skeleton 7 with two cut marks to
representing a bungled execution (Jo Buckberry; the anterior likely representing decapitation from the front
Buckberry and Hadley 2007:321). (Jo Buckberry: Buckberry and Hadley 2007:322).
• 5 individuals (2 skeletons and 3 crania) showed evidence of trauma consistent with the removal of the head (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:319). An additional cranium shows evidence of repeated blows to the back of the head which, from their positioning, are unlikely to have occurred in battle. This cranium has been interpreted as a possible bungled execution (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:319; for other examples of bungled executions see Atholl 1954:103; Potter 1993:101-102 (as seen in Reynolds 2009:39)).
• 3 or 4 of these individuals suffered sharp force trauma to the back of the head/neck region that is consistent with the use of a large bladed weapon such as an axe or a sword (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:319). Although, swords were the favoured instrument of decapitation during this period according to the textual sources (Reynolds 2009:169).
• 2 individuals suffered perimortem (around the time of death) injuries to the anterior surfaces of the vertebrae. This could be evidence of blood-letting, throat-slitting, or decapitation from the front (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:319). The depth of the cuts would suggest decapitation although decapitation from the front is quite unusual. It might be indicative of post-mortem decapitation (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:319).
• The lack of other injuries to the skeletons as well as the location and directionality of the injuries described suggests that these individuals did not die in battle (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:322).
Varied Burial Alignment and Shallow Graves
The cemetery features:
• 8 extended supine burials (body on its back, face upwards)
• 4 flexed burials (semi-fetal position with knees drawn up)
• 2 interred in shallow graves (graves 0.15-0.2 m in depth (Reynolds 2009:159)).
Plan of Walkington Wold Barrow 1 (after Bartlett and Mackey 1973, drawn by Oliver Jessop, seen in Buckberry and Hadley 2007:311).
In early Anglo-Saxon period England, the predominant burial rite was supine burial, in graves cut into the ground, usually without elaborate above ground structures. West-east orientation of graves was also prominent and became even more widespread following the conversion to Christianity (Reynolds 2009:36). At Walkington Wold the orientation of the burials is apparently random and method of disposal is varied (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:309; Reynolds 2009: 38-44, 151-160).
The interment of individuals in shallow graves is thought to mark hurried or careless burial. This practice shows a minimum effort being applied to bury the individual, which fits with the hypothesis of the cemetery as an execution site (Reynolds 2009:159).
Multiple Burials
Multiple burial at Walkington Wold, Skeletons 8, 11 (underneath Skeleton 8), 12 and 13 (Reynolds 2009).
Multiple burials also mark the individuals buried together as ‘deviant’ in some manner since the dominant burial rite in Anglo-Saxon England was single burials (Reynolds 2009:36-44, 169-174). Three individuals at the site were buried together in same grave (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:309, 314, 323). At least one of the individuals in this burial cuts into existing burials (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:323), which is a further indication of execution cemetery characteristics (Reynolds 2009:44). Additionally, the intercutting of graves adds to the evidence of the long period of use of the cemetery ((AD 640-775- AD 900-1030) based on the dated skeletons from this multiple burial) which argues against the site representing a massacre or battle (Reynolds 2009:44).
Age and Sex Profiles
Age at death for the skeletons and skeletal sex was assessed. All burials were determined to be young-middle adult males (18-45 years of age).
The age breakdown is as follows:
• 5 individuals between 18-25
• 2 between 20-35
• 4 between 26-35
• 2 between 18-45 (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:315-6,323).
Reynolds argues for a prevalence of adult males in execution cemeteries in Anglo-Saxon times (Reynolds 2009:45). This does not necessarily reflect men were more prone to criminal activity but that they were more likely to be executed for criminal activity (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:323). The age data also offers further evidence against the remains representing a massacre which would likely show mixed age and sex profiles (Reynolds 2009:45).
Location
The location of the site is one of the prime indicators, along with the prevalence of decapitation, that the site is an execution cemetery (Buckberry and Hadley 2007: 323; Reynolds 2009:44). Reynolds argues that execution cemeteries generally show: elevated locations and a close physical proximity or visibility from major routes of communication, are often associated with prehistoric monuments, and are frequently located on boundaries of administrative territories (Reynolds 2009:150-156).
• The site is located in a prominent, elevated position and affords extensive views north, south, and east (Reynolds 2009:155). The location is also visible from a routeway linking Beverly with York (Reynolds 2009:150-155).
• The burials were located in Bronze Age Barrows (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:323). The burial of criminals and other social outcasts in prehistoric mounds seems to be ideologically motivated and related to both Germanic lore and Christian motifs (Reynolds 2009:247-249). There is a history of prehistoric barrows as being places where monsters and spirits reside. Therefore burying criminals there ensures not only are they excluded from consecrated ground (in the Christian period) but that they are also eternally tormented by the monsters/spirits that reside there (Reynolds 2009:249).
• The site was located near a boundary between two local Anglo-Saxon administrative units (the hundreds of Welton and Cave) (Buckberry and Hadley 2007:323). Burying outcasts on boundaries is a feature found across northern Europe in the middle ages (Reynolds 2009:247).
Conclusions
Many early execution victims/sites are interpreted as Romano-British execution victims, slaves, captives, massacres, battles etc. (Reynolds 2009:57). After conducting extensive research on Anglo-Saxon ‘deviant’ burial practices, Reynolds established the kinds of characteristics that are likely to represent execution cemeteries. A re-evaluation of the evidence from Walkington Wold favours the interpretation of the site as an Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery rather than a sub-Roman massacre at a signal station or a ‘Celtic’ head cult.
