​Check List:  (Farrell 2011)

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1)   Decapitations

2)   Amputations and Mutilations

3)   Stoned burials

4)   Prone burials

5)   Burials in an out of the ordinary orientation

6)   Burials in unusual locations or ditches

               

​The checklist provided above is a simplified version of the more comprehensive list provided here.​

​We will now walk through each of these categories and describe why they characterize criminal or deviant burials. We can then determine which burials at Owenbristy and Mount Gamble cemeteries fit these criteria.

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1) Decapitations:

 

                According to Christian tradition, decapitated bodies (or any incomplete bodies) cannot be raised on Judgement Day when Christ returns to Earth (Farrell 2011​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​). Therefore, decapitations are a form of lasting punishment for the deceased as they are denied resurrection and access to heaven. Whether or not decapitation was the cause of death or inflicted after the death, it is often reserved for criminals. Decapitations appear in the archaeological remains most often as damage to the cervical vertebrae (chop marks) and the base of the skull (Geber 2012) and the wounds are usually inflicted by swords, axes and other heaving chopping blades (Geber 2012).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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               At Owenbristy seven out of the ten damaged skeletons have been decapitated (Geber 2012). Skeletons 73 and 75 (both women) were clearly decapitated (Geber 2012) while the other five are less obvious. Two of them were clearly men and were also extensively mutilated (Geber 2012). One of the decapitated individuals (skeleton 49) was an adolescent (though their sex is not known) (Geber 2012). Another interesting case is that of skeleton 82. He suffered numerous cuts to the back of several cervical vertebrae which suggests he was decapitated with a knife rather than a sword or axe (Geber 2012). The process would have been slow and if the individual were alive at the onset the pain would have been excruciating until they bled out or had their spinal cord severed, this suggests a possible aspect of torture involved. Though the sample is very small, decapitations are much more common at Owenbristy than at Mount Gamble. 

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                At Mount Gamble skeletons 191 and 281 are the only clear decapitations (Geber 2012). The head of Skeleton 191 was placed back in position in the grave after being severed (Geber 2012). In both cases the decapitation blows were to the back of the neck and are quite clean (Geber 2012). It took at least three blows to complete the decapitation in both cases suggesting either an inexperienced executioner or a dull blade (O’Donovan et al. 2009). The three strikes also suggest that the victims were either decapitated after death or were restrained in some way. This means that the wounds are unlikely to have been inflicted in the heat of battle or during a raid. This in turn suggests a degree of intentionality in the decapitations.

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2) Amputations and Mutilations:

 

                Limbs are removed for a variety of reasons but it is usually in response to the breach of a specific law. For example, under Adomnan’s law limbs are removed as a punishment for killing women (Farrell 2011). Amputations do not always indicate deviant or criminal burials however, as amputations can also be the result of battle wounds and medical practices.

                Amputations are not well represented in the Owenbristy or Mount Gamble cemeteries. Only Skeleton 42 at Owenbristy shows evidence of being dismembered (Geber 2012). He shows over 127 wounds inflicted all over his body by a variety of weapons including, axes, swords and daggers (Geber 2012). There is even evidence of knife damage to his pelvis which suggests his penis may have been severed. This skeleton was also decapitated and his head is missing from the grave (Farrell 2011). He is also missing his right forearm and his left leg and foot and his remains are buried in a bundle in the grave (Geber 2012). The degree of precision in the many of the cuts suggests that the man was either already dead when he was dismembered or was completely incapacitated. 

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                Mutilations are much more common in both cemeteries. Skeleton 73 at Owenbristy had her eyes stabbed out which is unique in the Irish archaeological record (Geber 2012). Skeleton 260 at Mount Gamble had his ear removed and several others had cuts inflicted to their necks and limbs (Geber 2012). Skeleton 260 at Mount Gamble also had clear damage to the bottom of his feet (Farrell 2011).

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3) Stoned Burials:

                Criminal or deviant burials usually have stones placed on the bodies or on the grave itself as means of keeping the spirit of the deceased, or their body from returning from the grave to plague the world of the living (Farrell 2011).

​                Almost all of the burials at Owenbristy (Geber 2012) were stone lined so it is unlikely that this indicates deviancy or criminality. There was no unusual placement of stones in any of the graves at the Mount Gamble cemetery.

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4) Prone:

                Burying a body on its front is often connected with the deceased being afflicted with epilepsy during life (Farrell 2011). Though there are also some theories that suggest dangerous people are buried face down to confuse the spirit and prevent it from escaping the grave (Farrell 2011). Overall, prone burial almost always signifies deviant burial but does not necessarily indicate a criminal burial.

                All of the burials at both Owenbristy and Mount Gamble are on their backs and the majority are extended as well (Geber 2012) suggesting that none of these burials are deviant, or more likely that prone burial was not a signifier of deviancy in these cemeteries. That being said, some of the earlier burials at Mount Gamble are in flexed positions and this may indicate pagan influences (O’Donovan et al. 2009).

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5) Orientation:

                The West-East orientation is the norm of Christian burials and it enables the deceased to witness Christ’s return when they are raised on Judgement Day (O’Donovan et al. 2009). The burials at Owenbristy had an East-West orientation whereas those at Mount Gamble were primarily West-East (Geber 2012). The differences here may be due to a more powerful Christian influence at Mount Gamble due to the nearby Christian cemetery.​

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6) Non-Graveyard Burials:

                There were no ditch burials or isolated burials at either Owenbristy or Mount Gamble. The majority of the burials in the center of the Mount Gamble cemetery (75%) are stacked one on top of the other while those on the fringes of burial ground were on their own (O’Donovan et al. 2009). This is likely due to the expansion of the cemetery rather than the criminal or deviant nature of the deceased.

Right: Owenbristy 73, damage to cheek bone

Left: Owenbristy 51, damage to cranium and chops on vertebrae

(Geber 2012: 6)